|
Nubian culture
An exhibition featuring photographs
of the dismantling and
re-erection of the temples of Abu Simbel held in the Egyptian
Museum reminds Jill Kamil of the debate fuelled during the
UNESCO salvage operations
Today we remember { Jill Kamil " Egypt in Nubia and vice versa "
} the dramatic dismantling, transportation and reconstruction of
the great temples of Nubia, now tourist attractions at their
relocated sites at home and abroad. We tend to forget the
specialised studies carried out by international experts who
worked there between 1958 and 1971, when the High Dam was
completed, that cast light on Nubia's many cultures. So many
blanks in the history of the region were filled in during those
years that more is known about the indigenous cultures of Nubia
than many archaeological zones in the world, even in Egypt.
I recall the debate initiated on the relationship between Africa
and Ancient Egypt when the Oriental Institute of Chicago's
mission at Qustul made an unusual discovery. An incense burner
was found in Nubia that dated to the dawn of history, 3100 BC or
even earlier, and which caused great curiosity because of its
engraving. It showed a seated ruler wearing what appeared to be
the White Crown of Upper Egypt, a palace portal, and hawk-motifs
that were later to become symbols of Pharaonic rule in Egypt.
Some scholars saw this as proof that a pre-dynastic object had
made its way from Egypt to Nubia, others as evidence that the
kingship ideal originated in Nubia. The discovery, anyway, along
with studies of various cemeteries in Nubia, modified future
attitudes towards cultural heritage and, on the long run, gave
rise to an Afrocentric outlook.
It certainly appears that the long relationship, and
inter-relationship, between Egypt and Nubia gave rise to a
shared heritage, a unique experience that endured over the
millennia.
What is known as the A-group cemeteries found in Nubia represent
its Neolithic culture of between 3500 and 2800 BC, and extended
along the whole length of Lower Nubia and even beyond the Second
Cataract about 200 kilometres south of Aswan. Archaeologists
found thousands of graves containing a wide variety of pottery,
leather garments, ostrich-feather fans, copper weapons and
palettes of quartz, all of which indicated the level of
civilisation reached by the Nubians. It was similar to, but
different from, that of the Egyptians.
However, after the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt the
Egyptian culture advanced rapidly and Nubia was left far behind.
The Pharaohs of the early dynasties (3050-2613 BC) made swift
progress, and soon set their sights on Nubia's mineral wealth.
The Pharaoh Djer left an inscription at the entrance to the
Second Cataract showing that he had journeyed well into Nubia
and, on the summit of a conical hill known today as Gabal Sheikh
Suleiman, he left a record of a military expedition in his reign
in which he captured two towns.
The requirements of a highly developed civilisation demanded raw
materials and other products that were not readily available in
Egypt, and these were imported from neighbouring territories.
Relations between the agriculturally impoverished but
mineral-rich land of Nubia and Egypt actually developed early
on. During the Pyramid Age (2613-2181 BC) Nubia's mineral wealth
was actively exploited by Egypt's Pharaohs. At a copper-smelting
settlement at Buhen, royal names on mud seals included those of
the Pharaohs Khafre and Menkaure of the Fourth Dynasty, and
Userkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare and Djedkare of the Fifth.
The Nubians resisted the exploitation, but when they discovered
that they could neither drive off nor kill the intruders they
finally awoke to the advantages of trade. Egyptians satisfied
their mineral requirements and opened markets even further
south, resulting in the acquisition of such valued commodities
as ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, panther skins and gums, while
in exchange the Nubians were provided with Egypt's agricultural
surplus, including grain, oil and honey.
An interesting and important observation made by missions
working in Nubia in the 1960s was an apparent attempt by the
early Pharaohs to control Lower Nubia by creating centres of
permanent occupation, even as far south as Kerma, the gateway to
the vast riches of the inner Africa.
One of the most rewarding archaeological concessions, and one
that identified thousands of sites in Nubia from pre-dynastic
times through to the Christian era, was that of the Scandinavian
joint expedition comprising Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden,
under mission head Torgy Save- Soderbergh of Uppsala University.
Through the mission's excavations at Debeira, on the east bank
of the Nile north of Wadi Halfa, it was possible to trace the
mysterious C-Group culture from its development to its
unexplained extinction more than a thousand years later.
It appears that between 2300 and 1500 BC, simultaneously with
the disintegration of Egypt into warring city states during the
so-called First Intermediate Period after the fall of the Old
Kingdom, a pastoral people known as the C-group emerged in
Nubia. The standard of their pottery and other objects in their
cemeteries reveals a more advanced standard of culture than the
earlier A- group. They appear to have been sedentary cattle
owners, perhaps descendants of cattle-breeders who roamed around
the Sahara desert and who drifted towards the Nile Valley when
conditions became difficult due to increasing desertification.
These people were probably responsible for the thousands of
drawings of cattle on the rocks of Nubia. Indeed, cattle were
frequently buried around their graves, and the long horns of
cattle decorated their pottery.
Save-Soderbergh long believed that there was a connection
between the Egyptian fortresses at the Second Cataract and the
C-group people, who were first buried in shallow graves
surrounded by stone rings but later built more elaborate stone-
lined chambers in the middle of a round stone structure complete
with chapel. He concluded that they were the very people whose
presence represented a threat to Egypt's Middle Kingdom Pharaohs
and inspired them to build vast fortifications to protect their
interests.
Indeed, the Middle Kingdom Pharaohs (2122- 1786 BC) were so
anxious to keep their trade routes open and secure that
Amenemhet I built a fortress in the Second Cataract region at
Semna; Amenemhet II established a trading post as far south as
Kerma; and Senusert III fixed the southern frontier of Egypt at
Semna, just above the Second Cataract. The great fortresses of
Mirgissa, Semna, Buhen and Uronarti were constructed on natural
elevations. According to Sir Alan Gardiner on the basis of a
papyrus found at Thebes, which recorded the names of Egyptian
fortresses, no fewer than eight were constructed in this region,
a testimonial to the solidarity of Egyptian control of its
southern possession. In short, Nubia was colonised by Egypt.
Unlike barren Lower Nubia, Upper Nubia or Kush (northern Sudan)
was fertile and rich in natural resources. Its people, the
Medjay, were vigorous and courageous and strongly resisted
Egyptian occupation. They were finally suppressed by Pharaoh
Senusert III. His army was aided by friendly Nubians --
frequently recruited for the Egyptian army -- who celebrated the
victory by turning Senusert into a national hero. A temple was
built in his honour, and became the focal point of a flourishing
Egyptian community.
Generation after generation of Egyptian soldiers and settlers
lived in Nubia, slowly spreading Egyptian traditions,
technological skills and religious beliefs. Through their
domination of the region, Egyptians were not only assured of the
fruits of this great gold and copper-producing country, but were
furthermore in an ideal position to trade for other prized
commodities further south. The Egyptian fortresses of Nubia
served as symbols of Egyptian military power, but they were also
depots for imported materials. This lasted until the Hyksos
occupation of Egypt, when many were burned or abandoned.
One archaeological team has gone a long way towards solving a
long-standing puzzle: why the military commanders of the Middle
Kingdom chose a dangerous stretch of the Second Cataract to
construct their fortresses. This was solved at Mirgissa fortress
by a mission under the direction of the French scholar Jean
Vercoutter. When Vercoutter arrived at the site the massive
fortification was covered by sand drifts, and for five
consecutive years his expedition worked to clear the area. They
were finally rewarded in 1964 when, in the upper fort, they
found what is regarded as the single most important object ever
found at the site. It was a wooden stele, which bore a text
"Hathor, Lady of Ikn". It confirmed Vercoutter's conviction that
Mirgissa was the long-sought Egyptian entrepot in Nubia, ideally
situated for trade, where a popular Egyptian goddess was
worshipped by the Egyptian community.
Fired with enthusiasm, the mission subsequently surveyed the
desert for miles around. They studied the river bank in search
of a harbour, docks, and perhaps warehouses. After clearing one
small, partly plundered cemetery the mission decided to excavate
the whole necropolis, and this resulted in a rare discovery.
They found a cache of some 3,000 "execration" texts, that is to
say fragments of pottery bearing the names of many of the people
regarded by the Egyptians as enemies. Not far distant, four
deliberately broken statuettes of prisoners were discovered, as
well as a human skull laid on a dish, and nearby were a flint
knife and a broken pot. The discovery of the texts, with lists
of foreign countries and peoples in Asia and Africa, has already
enriched the study of magical rites associated with foundation
deposits of temples in Egypt and Nubia.
The Middle Kingdom came to an end with the Hyksos invasion, and
during the period of decline from the XIIIth to XVIIth dynasties
(1786-1567 BC), Lower Nubia took advantage of Egypt's weakness
and regained its freedom. By the time the Hyksos were finally
expelled by a powerful Theban family which founded the XVIIIth
Dynasty, the Pharaohs had to re-establish a presence there.
The New Kingdom (1567-1080 BC) was marked a period of
substantial imperial expansion in western Nubia and Kush. Ramses
II, the most prolific of temple builders, constructed many
temples in Nubia between the First Cataract at Aswan and Second.
From north to south, they were located at Beit Al-Wali, Gerf
Hussein, Wadi As-Sebua, Derr, Abu Simbel and Aksha. Each of
these temples, saved from inundation and now tourist
attractions, had a sizable community to support it and, in their
original positions, had several features in common. Initially a
series of free-standing statues led from the banks of the river
to the cliff face, into which the temple was cut. Their location
in relation to the river, along with the resident communities,
indicates a shift from occupation with military garrisons housed
in great fortresses to a life of peaceful trade and commerce.
Egypt's technological skills and religious traditions were
introduced deep into Nubia. Its influence gradually spread
southwards to the Fourth Cataract, and between 1000 and 300 BC
Napata was yet another Egyptian settlement. So in the confusion
that followed the death of the high priest Hrihor, who had
usurped the throne of Egypt and declared himself to be ruler of
Upper and Lower Egypt -- although the Delta was actually ruled
by a strong family in Tanis, and divided rule meant weakened
rule -- Kush seized the opportunity to become increasingly
independent.
At last it was a time of glory for Egypt's southern neighbour.
Liberated from Egyptian domination, the Kushites set up an
independent kingdom at Napata. It was African in origin but
Egyptian in tradition and religious belief, and a Pharaonic-
style court was installed. Egypt's "great god" Amun-Re was
worshipped in a temple built near Gabal Barkal, a sacred
mountain near the Fourth Cataract, and the kings styled
themselves with Pharaonic titles. They were proud and ambitious,
and when they observed the slow deterioration of the Egyptian
government the Kushite King Piankhy (730-663 BC) was encouraged
to move northwards into Egypt.
With a strong army, Piankhy marched northwards, not as an
invader, since his people had long absorbed Egyptian culture,
but as a liberator. He regarded himself as a true Pharaoh, bound
to free Egypt from the forces of barbarism and re- establish
lost virtues. The Kushite Dynasty in Egypt, the XXVth, lasted
from 750-656 BC, and Piankhy and his descendants were able to
bring about internal stability such that they built temples and
revitalised society. How long they might have remained on the
throne of Egypt is difficult to say, but with the Assyrian march
on the Delta in 671 BC they were driven back to their own land
where, at Napata, their kingdom prospered until about 600 BC.
Why the Napatan rulers decided to move their capital further
south, to Meroe (Shendi) is not clear. Nevertheless there, in a
fertile bend in the river, free from invasion and well placed
for trade, in an area rich in iron ore and in wood for
iron-smelting, they developed a culture that was at once a
continuation of the Egyptian-influenced Napatan culture and a
totally individual African culture, the Meroitic. Egyptian
influence was strong in Meroitic religion and art, and the kings
and queens were buried in pyramids at Meroe. The Meroitic
language is still not fully understood.
While Egypt succumbed to two Persian invasions (in 525 and 345
BC) the Meroitic Empire flourished and slowly expanded through
northern Sudan and Upper Nubia. By the reign of Ptolemy IV
(222-204 BC), the Meroitic King Argamanic controlled the Nile to
within sight of Elephantine Island.
Relations between Nubia and Ptolemaic Egypt were good, but the
situation changed when the Romans occupied Egypt in 30 BC. The
Meroites and Roman authorities came into conflict over the
control of Lower Nubia, especially when nomadic tribes from the
Western Desert increasingly disrupted the lives of Nile Valley
communities and interrupted trade.
Eventually a peace treaty was signed, turning all of Lower Nubia
into a buffer zone. Despite the alliance, however, there was
continued conflict between the proud and independent Meroites
and the Roman garrisons in Egypt. On one occasion the Meroites
defeated Caesar's soldiers and actually occupied Aswan. They did
not stay long. The Roman army drove them out and they returned
to their own land, where their kingdom already showed signs of
disintegration.
Between the mid-fourth and mid-sixth centuries AD, a new
X-group, or Ballana culture, emerged in Nubia. Its origin is of
doubtful origin and is the subject of controversy among
scholars. Some are of the opinion that they were the troublesome
people known to the Romans as Blemmyes, a warlike tribe of the
Eastern Desert. Others identify the X- group with a people known
as the Nobodai, who migrated into Nubia from western Sudan. The
tombs of the kings found by British scholar Walter Emery in the
1930s contained the richest grave goods ever found in Nubia, now
in the Nubia Museum at Aswan. They include silver crowns inland
with semi-precious stones, bronze and silver vessels, jewellery,
weapons and furniture. Servants were buried in the tombs, as
well as animals including horses with saddles and harnesses
elaborately decorated with silver.
Only slowly did Nubia accept the Christian faith. From 550-1500
AD three Christian kingdoms were established along the Nile
between modern Khartoum and Aswan, with Faras as capital of
northern Nubia. The Nubian population increased and prospered.
Many churches were built and some temples were converted into
churches.
In 652, as the Arab empire expanded, a treaty was drawn up
between the Muslim rulers and Nubian Christians which resulted
in good relations for some 500 years. However, the fortunes of
Christian Nubia eventually declined as it came more and more
under the control of Islam. In the 14th century a bishop was
enthroned as Qasr Ibrim, but Christianity by that time lingered
on only in pockets which further decreased with the passage of
time.
Clearly the material remains of Nubian culture were not
individual and isolated as previously supposed, but form an
almost continuous development, while the function and purpose of
Egypt's great monuments in Nubia are more than architectural and
artistic masterpieces
|
