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Islam entered Africa shortly after its inception
in the seventh century AD. After the death of Muhammad, the
rasul, or "messenger," and prophet of Islam, in 632, the first
caliph ("deputy of the prophet") of Islam, Abu Bakr, ambitiously
undertook a series of military conquests to spread the new faith
across the world. Although he died two years later, his nephew,
Umar, continued the ambitious program. In 636, the Muslims
occupied Jerusalem, Damascus, and Antioch; in 651, they had
conquered all of Persia. But they also moved west into Africa,
for Arabic culture saw itself as continuous not only with Middle
Eastern culture, but with northern African culture as well. In
646, the Muslims conquered Egypt and quickly spread across
northern Africa. From northern Africa, they invaded Spain in
711. Look at the dates: Islam is founded in 610 when Muhammed
has the first of his revelations in the caves above the city of
Qumran. In 711, one hundred years later, the Muslims conquered
the Middle East, Persia, the Arabian Peninsula, northern Africa,
and had just entered Europe. The initial spread of Islam is the
single most dramatic cultural change in the history of the
world, and it loomed large in the subsequent history of African
civilizations .
The largest African cities and kingdoms were located in the
Sahel, a desert and savannah region south of the Sahara. After
750 AD, these cities and kingdoms arose because they served as
waystations and terminus points for the trade routes across
northern Africa. The northern Africans, however, were Muslim;
one particular people, the Berbers, were a north African people
who were fervently Muslim. The Berbers and their wars of
conversion figure very large in the history of the Sahelian
kingdoms; by the 1300's, these large kingdoms became Islamic
and, more importantly, centers of Islamic learning.
Beyond religion, there are several important cultural
practices
that the Arabic culture of Islam gave to Africa. The first is
literacy. Egypt and the Nilotic kingdoms of the Kushites and the
Nubians had long traditions of writing, and the Ethiopians had
acquired it through their ties to the Semitic peoples of
southern Arabia. But these writing systems did not spread
throughout Africa. Islam, however, as a religion of the book,
spread writing and literacy everywhere it went. Many Africans
dealt with two languages: their native language and Arabic,
which was the language of texts. However, this gradually changed
as Africans began using the Arabic alphabet to write their own
languages. To this date, Arabic script is one of the most common
scripts for writing African languages. With literacy, the Arabs
brought formal educational systems. In north Africa and the
Sahel, these systems and institutions would produce a great
flowering of African thought and science. In fact, the city of
Timbuctu had perhaps the greatest university in the world. Islam
also brought social fragmentation. As the faith spread
throughout Africa, political authority of established African
institutions and kingdoms began to collapse under the burden,
when groups of Muslims declared holy war against pagan social
groups.
Ayyubids & Mamluks .Their role was not restricted to defending
Islam against the Crusaders and Mongols; they also played a
great part 11 in spreading it among the Nubians in the Sudan in
the south and the Mongols of Kipchak around the Black Sea in
the, north. Egypt in general has been concerned with the Kingdom
of Nubia in the upper Nile. Nubians were Christians affiliated
with the Egyptian orthodox church. They have been loyal to the
Sultan of Egypt since the treaty concluded , with the Arab
general Abdullah Ibn S'ad Ibn Abi Sarh in 30 A.H. (650 A.O.).
However, they quite often raided upper ; Egypt by land and down
the Nile, so the governors of Egypt sent forces to Nubia to
enforce the Pactum convention. These campaigns encouraged some
Arab tribes to settle there and to live among its people
especially in the Al : Mrayyes area. Rabi'a Arabs, for instance,
married daughters of Nubian chiefs and had material interests as
a result of , the inheritance system there. So the Rabi'a became
influential in the Aswan region and further south. Good
relations developed between the Rabi'a and the Fatimids in
Egypt. The Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakem bi Amr ; Allah sought their
assistance in recapturing the Moroccan rebel Abi Rakwa when he
escaped to Nubia. Abu al-Makarem, the Amir of Rabi'a arrested
him and handed him over to the Fatimids who rewarded him with
the title 'Kanz al-Oawla' i.e. The Treasure of the State, a
title which they have maintained until today. They are the
tribes who : were living in High Dam area. At the beginning of
Saladin's reign, Nubian attacks on Egyptian territories were
resumed and continued during the rule of the First Mamluk State.
Punitive expeditions were sent during Saladin's Al-Zaher Baybars
and Seif El Din Qalawum reigns. As a result the Nubian Kingdom
became more and more Arabized and less Christian. By the mid-8th
century A.H. (14th century A.O.) the Nubians embraced Islam; the
Bani Kanz became kings and the tribute paid by Nubians was
abolished.
In the middle of the seventh century there were two fully
established kingdoms existing in the Nile Valley south of Aswan:
Makuria in the north and Alodia to the south. The former
occupied the territory from the First Cataract to the tributary
called Atbara in the south, the latter stretched south of the
Fifth Cataract all the way to the Ethiopian uplands. The actual
border between the two has yet to be determined. Most likely in
the late twenties of the seventh century, at a time when the
Sassanids were in retreat from Egypt, Makuria incorporated the
kingdom of Nobadia, which had existed independently since the
fourth century.
From the mid sixth century the kingdoms of Nobadia, Makuria and
Alodia had had strong ties with Byzantium and Egypt. They had
accepted Christianity from missionaries sent by Constantinople.
At Alodia, where Axum influence was already strong, missionary
work was carried out after 580 by the first Monophysite bishop
of Nobadia Longinus. In Makuria, the missionaries arrived
straight from Constantinople. A bishopric with ties directly to
the Byzantium capital was founded at Dongola in the mid 570s.
The church of Alodia remained subordinate to the bishop of
Alexandria right from the start. Makuria did not accept the
superiority of the Monophysite patriarchate in Alexandria until
the turn of the seventh century, when Merkurios was king.
The Arab conquest of Egypt changed the geopolitical situation of
the two kingdoms dramatically. The raid that the second governor
of Egypt, Abdullah abi Sarh, led against Makuria in 651/652 was
nothing less than an attempt to subjugate the kingdom. The
successful defense of the heavily fortified citadel of Dongola
resulted in negotiations that led to the signing of a political
and economic treaty between the parties (baqt), stabilizing the
peaceful relations of Makuria with the caliphate for the next
520 years. Both Arabs and Makurians respected the border at
Aswan, abided by their religious and cultural differences,
established rules of travel and settlement, as well as a parity
in trade exchange according to which Makuria supplied African
slaves and goods, while the caliphate provided food and luxury
goods.
The great rulers of eight-century Makuria, Merkurios and
Kyriakos foremost, pushed through reforms introducing a new
territorial division that granted the eparchy of Nobadia special
importance in maintaining good relations with Egypt and the
caliphate. The Church was also reorganized at this time. A
number of new bishoprics was established: Qurta, Qasr Ibrim,
Faras, Sai , Dongola and, finally, Termus and Sciencur. The last
two has not been localized yet, but the general location was
presumably between the Third and Fourth Cataracts. Kyriakos even
cultivated closer contacts with the family of the reigning king
of Alodia, which kingdom did not have a stabilized relation with
the caliphate.
The seventh and eight centuries are a period of significant
development in Makurian art, expressed in particular by a new
type of cathedral that replaced the earlier sixth-century
five-aisled basilicas. The Dongola Cathedral, the Church of the
Granite Columns and the Cathedral of Paulos in Pachoras which
was modeled on it, are all built on a central plan, but
furnished with a columnar naos and narthex, and numerous side
annexes. This type of cathedral, which was a creation of the
Dongolan architectural milieu in the late seventh century,
exerted a visible effect on the churches A and B in Soba in
Alodia. Religious painting known from the churches of Makuria
(Abu Oda, Abdallah Nirqi, Wadi es Sebua) but foremost from the
Cathedral of Paulos at Pachoras, displayed a high level of
artistic achievement combined with features of the local school
which had grown under the influence of Egyptian styles and
iconography adopted from Egypt and Palestine, if not also likely
from Constantinople. This process can be recognized even more
clearly in the murals decorating House A in Dongola. Civil
architecture and the process of urbanization changing the face
of Makurian settlements testify to the economic prosperity of
the kingdom, the cultural and social aspirations of its subjects
and their civilizational status.
A dynasty established in the thirties of the ninth century by
King (Augustus) Zacharias ruled Makuria until the middle of the
eleventh century. This period is frequently referred to as the
golden age of Makurian culture. Resuming good relations with the
caliphate loomed large on the new rulers' task list. The visit
of the caliph's envoys to Dongola served this purpose, as did
the official delegation to Baghdad in 836 of King Georgios I
(Caesar), Zacharias' son and co-ruler. In Baghdad, he
renegotiated the treaty (baqt), upholding all the principal
tenets of bilateral political and economic relations. A further
rapprochement between Makuria and Egypt took place in the
Fatimid period in particular (9th-12th centuries). In the reigns
of Zacharias I and Georgios I, Georgios II, Zacharias II and
Zacharias III, the kingdom experienced rapid growth despite
initial strife marring the reign of Georgios I (Nyuti's
rebellion, conflict with el Omarim). New inspirations were
especially well visible in Dongola. A new royal palace was
erected in the capital of the kingdom, incorporating a throne
hall situated on the upper floor (later Mosque). Also
constructed at this time was the most monumental architectural
complex in the kingdom - the Cruciform Church with its central
dome. The building was designed in commemoration of Georgios's
visit to Baghdad and became a symbol of the kingdom. The
cathedrals in Dongola and Pachoras were renovated. The murals
preserved from this period in the Pachoras cathedral are among
the finest in the entire kingdom. Next to the grand compositions
of Christ Enthroned, Nativity and Three Youths in a Fiery
Furnace, there are countless representations of the rulers of
Makuria, mothers of kings and the eparchs of Nobadia and bishops
of Pachoras, the latter playing an exceedingly important role in
the kingdom as primates of the Church. Smaller churches, such as
the complexes at Abdallach Nirqi, Tamit and Sonqi Tino, provide
many other examples of wall painting from this period.
The fall of the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and the rise to power
of the Ayyubids, as well as internal fighting between the Black
Sultans and the Turks led to a cooling in Makurian-Egyptian
relations. The expedition that Salaheddin's brother led against
Makuria, which terminated in the taking of Qasr Ibrim and the
garrisoning of troops in the fortress there for a period of
several years, resulted in growing animosity. The baqt was
forgotten. Despite the efforts of Moise Georgios of Makuria no
peace was negotiated. The consequences were serious for the
Nubian kingdom. Food imports from Egypt were reduced
substantially, forcing Makuria toward greater agricultural
self-sufficiency. The granary supervisor became one of the
leading officials in the kingdom. Considerable effort was put in
building new fortifications or refurbishing existing but
neglected defenses. A progressive Nubianization of church and
state administration occurred with Greek and Coptic losing
preference as the official languages in favor of Old Nubian. All
of the literature in the kingdom was translated into the
kingdom's vernacular at this time.
Relations with Alodia were also strengthened, apparently by
blood ties between the two ruling families. Royal marriages were
facilitated with the restoration in the middle of the eleventh
century of the principle of the son of the royal sister
inheriting the Makurian throne. Strong royal authority
diminished in the face of progressing feudalization, leaving the
kingdom in the hands of an extensive group of local dignitaries
drawn from the royal family and the state administration. The
Makurian Church retained its strong economic position. The sons
of the ruling king increasingly often became bishops and a
number of the rulers spent the remaining years of their lives
after abdication in monasteries, sometimes outside the kingdom.
This obviously did not favor political stability within the
state.
A declining economy did not at first impact Makurian culture,
which continued to represent a high level of achievement. This
was true of the architecture, even though the new religious
structures were on a much more modest scale and the role of
civil and military building had grown substantially. No trace of
falling standards can be observed in Nubian painting of the
period, as evinced by murals preserved in the cathedral at
Pachoras, the N-W monastery annex in Dongola and numerous local
churches. The twelfth century was hardly a period of decline in
the art of Makuria, but there is no denying a spreading
stagnation and a drying out of new inspirations. Dongola
increasingly dominated the artistic life of the kingdom, one
example of this being the intensive development of the monastery
of the Great Anthony in this period. Bearing witness to the
times is an extensive archive of literary texts, notarial
documents and letters uncovered at Qasr Ibrim.
Strained relations between Makuria and the Islamic world marked
the beginning of Mamluk rule in Egypt. An ill-advised attack on
the port of Aidhab on the Red Sea and on Aswan in the times of
King David triggered repressions on the part of Egypt. Open
conflict could no longer be avoided in the reigns of the sultans
Baybars and Qalawun. Mamluk troops took Dongola, Makurian
economy suffered from looting, imposed taxes, and an
administration in a state of havoc. Independence was lost with
Nubian rulers depending heavily on Mamluk support to wield any
kind of influence. All resistance crumbled under the weight of
Arab military forays. A new threat appeared from the desert with
the incursion of the Bedouin tribes, part of which settled in
Makurian territory. Economical collapse was imminent with little
chance for meeting imposed levies, anarchy grew. The ruler who
inherited the Makurian throne in 1316 was a descendant of King
David and a convert to Islam. In 1317 the throne hall of the
Makurian kings was turned into a mosque. Further anarchy in the
kingdom resulted in the death of the king. Makuria stopped
paying tribute and Egypt ceased to meddle in the internal
affairs of the kingdom.
In 1364, in the face of a threat from the Jaad and Akarima
tribes, the king and his court fled Dongola. With assistance
from Egypt the Nubians managed to stop these foraying tribes at
the fortress of Gebel Adda, which then became the new royal
seat. The territory of Makuria (Nubian Dotawo) shrank to the
region between the First and Second Cataracts, originally the
southern part of the kingdom with the main centers at Qasr Ibrim
and Gebel Adda, and to Batn el Hagar. In the late fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, the territories situated south of the Third
Cataract descended into ever deeper anarchy, considerable ethnic
changes took place, church administration all but vanished.
Alodia collapsed at about the same time, it, too, having been
disrupted by foraying Bedouin tribes and subsequently
subordinated to the new Funj sultans, whose authority in the
sixteenth century extended even as far as the Third Cataract in
the south.
To believe the evidence of documents from Qasr Ibrim and Gebel
Adda, the kingdom of Dotawo (Makuria) in the region of the
Second Cataract still existed in the fifteenth century. Its
final collapse presumably followed the invasion of the Ottoman
Turks who occupied the Nile Valley all the way to the Third
Cataract. They established in this region two provinces with
garrisons at Qasr Ibrim and on the island of Sai.
Nubians and Arabs
Contacts between Nubians and Arabs long predated the coming of
Islam, but the arabization of the Nile Valley was a gradual
process that occurred over a period of nearly 1,000 years. Arab
nomads continually wandered into the region in search of fresh
pasturage, and Arab seafarers and merchants traded in Red Sea
ports for spices and slaves. Intermarriage and assimilation also
facilitated arabization. After the initial attempts at military
conquest failed, the Arab commander in Egypt, Abd Allah ibn
Saad, concluded the first in a series of regularly renewed
treaties with the Nubians that, with only brief interruptions,
governed relations between the two peoples for more than 600
years. So long as Arabs ruled Egypt, there was peace on the
Nubian frontier; however, when non-Arabs acquired control of the
Nile Delta, tension arose in Upper Egypt.
The Arabs realized the commercial advantages of peaceful
relations with Nubia and used the treaty to ensure that travel
and trade proceeded unhindered across the frontier. The treaty
also contained security arrangements whereby both parties agreed
that neither would come to the defense of the other in the event
of an attack by a third party. The treaty obliged both to
exchange annual tribute as a goodwill symbol, the Nubians in
slaves and the Arabs in grain. This formality was only a token
of the trade that developed between the two, not only in these
commodities but also in horses and manufactured goods brought to
Nubia by the Arabs and in ivory, gold, gems, gum arabic, and
cattle carried back by them to Egypt or shipped to Arabia.
Acceptance of the treaty did not indicate Nubian submission to
the Arabs, but the treaty did impose conditions for Arab
friendship that eventually permitted Arabs to achieve a
privileged position in Nubia. For example, provisions of the
treaty allowed Arabs to buy land from Nubians south of the
frontier at Aswan. Arab merchants established markets in Nubian
towns to facilitate the exchange of grain and slaves. Arab
engineers supervised the operation of mines east of the Nile in
which they used slave labor to extract gold and emeralds. Muslim
pilgrims in route to Mecca traveled across the Red Sea on
ferries from Aydhab and Sawakin, ports that also received
cargoes bound from India to Egypt.
Traditional genealogies trace the ancestry of most of the Nile
Valley's mixed population to Arab tribes that migrated into the
region during this period. Even many non-Arabic-speaking groups
claim descent from Arab forebears. The two most important
Arabic-speaking groups to emerge in Nubia were the Jaali and the
Juhayna. Both showed physical continuity with the indigenous
pre-Islamic population. The former claimed descent from the
Quraysh, the Prophet Muhammad's tribe. Historically, the Jaali
have been sedentary farmers and herders or townspeople settled
along the Nile and in Al Jazirah. The nomadic Juhayna comprised
a family of tribes that included the Kababish, Baqqara, and
Shukriya. They were descended from Arabs who migrated after the
thirteenth century into an area that extended from the savanna
and semidesert west of the Nile to the Abyssinian foothills east
of the Blue Nile. Both groups formed a series of tribal
shaykhdoms that succeeded the crumbling Christian Nubian
kingdoms and that were in frequent conflict with one another and
with neighboring non-Arabs. In some instances, as among the
Beja, the indigenous people absorbed Arab migrants who settled
among them. Beja ruling families later derived their legitimacy
from their claims of Arab ancestry.
Although not all Muslims in the region were Arabic-speaking,
acceptance of Islam facilitated the arabizing process. There was
no policy of proselytism, however, and forced conversion was
rare. Islam penetrated the area over a long period of time
through intermarriage and contacts with Arab merchants and
settlers. Exemption from taxation in regions under Muslim rule
also proved a powerful incentive to conversion.
Today, the Nubians are all Muslims. However, their traditional
animistic beliefs (belief that non-living objects have spirits)
are still mingled in with their Islamic practices.
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