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New Kingdom
In 1500 BC, Egypt conquered all of Nubia, forging a great empire
that stretched all the way from the Euphrates in Syria to the
5th Cataract of the Nile. For over 500 years, Egypt's wealth
made the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom, like Tutankhamun, the most
powerful rulers on the face of the earth. They built huge
monuments throughout Egypt and Nubia, such as the famous temple
of Abu Simbel
Following the collapse the Egyptian New Kingdom, by the early
first millennium BC the kingdom of Kush re-emerged in its own
right as a great power in the Middle Nile. Between 712-657 BCE,
Sudanese kings conquered and ruled Egypt, as the XXVth Dynasty.
After losing control of Egypt, the Kushite Empire survived in
its homeland for nearly 1000 years - until c.300-350 CE - at its
greatest extent controlling as much as 1,000km of the Nile
valley
Third Intermediate Period of kush kingdom
Third Intermediate Period. When Kashta came to power in Kush,
Egypt was in political turmoil. This era is designated, the
Third Intermediate Period (Dynasties 21-25, ca. 1070-656 BC). In
Kashta's time, Egypt was fragmented into at least 11 independent
kinglets and principalities, including: 3 in Upper Egypt and 2
in the Delta, as well as 5 Libyan tribal chiefdoms and a
principality, also in the Delta. Centered at Sais in the western
Delta was a great chiefdom of Egyptianized Libyans, whose ruler
was entitled, "Great Chief of the West."
In expanding Kushite control through Lower Nubia, Kashta might
possibly have penetrated north of Elephantine and extended his
political influence even into Upper Egypt. While Kashta never
entered Egypt, he did claim the traditional kingship of Upper
and Lower Egypt, perhaps even establishing indirect friendly
relations with Thebes (for which there is no clear evidence).
Kashta's son and successor, Piye (ca. 753-713 BC), also claimed
the title, "King of Upper and Lower Egypt." He brought Thebes
under his direct protection and established a military force in
the area. He also had his sister, Amenirdis I, installed as
priestess-designate in the Temple of Amun at Karnak with the
title, "God's Wife of Amun." This was an important political
move, since the God's Wife of Amun was traditionally the
daughter or sister of the legitimate king of Egypt or Thebes,
and it suggests that Piye had been designated as the
heir-apparent of the last Theban king. Apparently, Piye also
claimed the allegiance of the petty kingdoms of Hermopolis and
Heracleopolis, while the great chiefdom of Sais held the
loyalties of the various polities in the Delta.
First Military Conquest. In ca. 732 BC, the chiefdom of Sais
began military operations in Upper Egypt to make the kingdoms
there suzerain. As a result, the Kingdom of Hermopolis joined
the Saites in besieging Heracleopolis and threatening Thebes.
Piye, residing at Napata, responded by ordering his army in
Thebes to attack and lift the siege of Heracleopolis and to
resecure the loyalty of Hermopolis. He then sent a second
expeditionary force from Kush to Middle Egypt to halt the Saite
advance. He departed Napata for Thebes, where he celebrated the
New Year's Festival and the Feast of Opet (by which he
reaffirmed his spiritual claim to the Egyptian kingship).
Thereafter, at the head of his army, Piye drove the Saite-led
coalition to Memphis. He besieged that city which fell to him in
a bloody conflict, after which each of the coalition kings
finally surrendered to him and acknowledged him as their
overlord.
The record of this campaign was recorded on a victory stela
found at the Temple of Amun at Napata. Copies of the text were
also erected in the sanctuary of the Temple of Karnak and
probably in the Temple of Ptah at Memphis. According to the
text, Piye's conquest was a religious crusade against Egyptian
rebels on behalf of Amun. After he effected the surrender of all
the petty dynasts, Piye he had himself crowned King of Upper and
Lower Egypt in a traditional coronation held at the Temple of Ra
at Heliopolis.
The crowning of Piye in ca. 732 BC marked the beginning of the
Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egyptian history. In capturing Egypt and
adding it to his own kingdom, Piye united the entire Nile Valley
into one state from Meroe to the Mediterranean Sea--for the
first time in history (. He generously appointed four of the
former kings as governors of their territories to rule for him
in Egypt, including the troublesome Great Chief of the West in
Sais. He then returned to Napata in triumph loaded with the
spoils of his campaign and with tribute from his new vassals.
Second Military Conquest. Piye's reunification was short- lived.
Because he maintained Napata at his political capital, he was
unable to govern Egypt effectively from so far up the Nile
River. He did not learn the lesson of history that had been
apparent to the Upper Egyptian kings of the First, Twelfth and
Eighteenth Dynasties, which was that a united Egypt could only
be effectively governed from the north, not the south. With Piye
residing at such a great distance away, his governors, who were
the former kings that fought against him, lost no time in
rebelling against his authority and declaring a measure of
independence. The Great Chief of the West in the city of Sais
even declared himself King of Upper and Lower Egypt, founding
the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. Evidently, Piye was willing to accept
this situation, so long as the Delta dynasts continued to
recognize his overall authority or did not attempt to expand
into Upper Egypt.
In ca. 713 BC, Piye was succeeded by his brother, Shabako. In a
tradition new to the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, the inheritance of
the throne was transmitted not from king to king's son directly,
but from king to brother to king's son (. Shabako, intent on
consolidating Kushite authority in Egypt, invaded Egypt in his
second regnal year and reconquered it. By ca. 712 BC, he was
residing in Memphis, which he designated his residence and royal
capital. He took more effective control of Egypt than had his
brother; he removed the disloyal governors of the Delta, some of
which were executed, and he replaced them with his own Kushite
governors.
Shabako apparently also campaigned on the Sinai frontier in
order to secure it from migrating bedouin, and he engaged in a
modest amount of royal building projects in Egypt. Among other
things, he had the ancient Memphite Theology (detailing the
cosmogony of the god Ptah) copied from papyrus to a slab of
basalt and erected in Memphis.
Outside of Egypt at this time, the neo-Assyrians were
consolidating their empire in the Near East. The principalities
and kingdoms of Phoenicia, Israel, Judah and Philistia (i.e.,
the territories adjoining the Egyptian frontier) were suzerain
to the Assyrians, albeit contentious and rebellious against
them. Shabako, cautious and wary of the Assyrians--and perhaps
as a means of ingratiating himself with them--maintained a
policy of neutrality and non-interference. Thus, when the
rebellious ruler of Ashdod fled to Egypt to avoid capture by the
Assyrians, Shabako extradited the Philistine ruler back to them.
Shebitku, the son of Piye, succeeded his uncle on the throne
ca. 698 BC, perhaps after a two-year coregency with Shabako. By
this time, the hereditary rulers of Sais seem to be back in
power, as were other Delta princes. Shebitku maintained his
predecessor's policy of a modest amount of royal building
projects, mostly in Memphis and Thebes. However, he departed
from Shabako's overly cautious foreign policy and adopted a new
and more aggressive posture against Assyria. Around 701 BC, when
Judah and the Philistine cities rose up against the Assyrians in
a coordinated revolt, Shebitku provided them with military
assistance in the form of troops for their allied forces. He
also dispatched an Egyptian army led by his brother, Taharqa, to
halt the Assyrian reinvasion of Phoenicia and Palestine.
However, the Assyrians defeated the allied force and
accomplished their objectives before the arrival of the Egyptian
army. The Egyptians withdrew back to Egypt, unwilling to battle
the Assyrians alone. Because of Egypt's assistance to the
rebellious states, for the first time, she came into direct
political and military conflict with Assyria.
Taharqa succeeded his brother as pharaoh in ca. 690 BC. He ruled
for twenty-six years, the first sixteen of which were filled
with brilliant achievement. He was a prolific builder in Memphis
and Thebes, especially at the Temple of Amun at Karnak. He also
rebuilt or erected anew temples and shrines throughout Nubia. He
was a very capable ruler, often the model of an Egyptian
pharaoh, and some archaeologists would argue that he led Egypt
through its last stage of outstanding and independent cultural
success.
In ca. 677 BC, during Taharqa's thirteenth regnal year, the
Assyrians, led by King Esarhaddon, attacked Egypt's eastern
frontier near Sile with the intent of invasion. Here they were
defeated by the army of Taharqa. Three years later, in 674 BC,
they attacked again. This time they defeated Taharqa and
captured Memphis. While Taharqa withdrew southward, probably to
Nubia, the Assyrians seized the entire royal court, including
the queen and the heir apparent to the throne, and transported
them as captives to Nineveh. For the third time in its history,
Egypt had been conquered by foreigners.
Esarhaddon effected the military occupation of Egypt by
appointing Egyptian vassals to rule the country for him. They
functioned under the aegis of Assyrian commissioners who were
supported by an Assyrian military garrison. The vassals were
chosen from among the earlier Delta dynasts who previously had
ruled their territories as fiefs under the Kushites. The
foremost of these was Necho of Sais. In reconfirming these
dynasts, Esarhaddon was trying to create an Egyptian bulwark
against the possible return of Taharqa, relying upon the
ambitions and envy of those vassals.
Within two years, Taharqa had returned to power as king in
Egypt and ousted the Assyrian garrison. Due to Esarhaddon's
death, the Assyrians were unable to return to Egypt for an
additional two years. When they did return (ca. 670 BC), under
King Assurbanipal, they defeated Taharqa again, who withdrew to
Thebes. When they followed, Taharqa fled south to Napata. The
rest of Egypt submitted to Assurbanipal's rule. However, after
he arrived back in Assyria, most of the Egyptian vassals invited
Taharqa to return to Egypt as pharaoh in some power-sharing
arrangement. The plot was discovered, and the vassals were
publicly executed, either in cities throughout the Delta or in
Nineveh. For their loyalty to him, Assurbanipal appointed Necho
I as king in Sais and his son, Psammetichus, as ruler of
Athribis. Taharqa never returned to Egypt, but finished his
reign as King of Kush in Napata.
Upon his death, Taharqa was succeeded by his nephew,
Tanwetamani (ca. 664 BC). He reinvaded Egypt with a Kushite
army, captured Memphis and attacked the Delta. After he killed
Necho I in battle, the Delta vassals recognized him as King of
Egypt, while Psammetichus fled to Assyria. Within a year (ca.
663 BC), the Assyrians returned to quell this rebellion.
Tanwetamani was quickly defeated, and he withdrew to Thebes. The
Assyrians followed once again, whereupon he withdrew to his
power base at Napata. In retribution, the Assyrians burned and
sacked Thebes. The catastrophic fall of Thebes was an event
incon- ceivable through its 1,500-years history, and it
reverberated throughout the Near East for decades. Tanwetamani
never returned to Egypt, and any effective Kushite pretensions
to the throne of Egypt ended forever. For his loyalty, the
Assyrians installed Psammetichus I of the Twenty- sixth Dynasty
as king of most of the Egyptian Delta.
When Tanwetamani was finally driven from Egypt in ca. 663 BC,
the Twenty-fifth Dynasty collapsed, and over seventy years of
Kushite rule in Egypt came to an end. However, when the Assyrian
army withdrew from Egypt shortly thereafter, serious political
problems developed back in Assyria, precluding its ability ever
to return to Egypt. Ironically for the Kushites, only a short
time after their expulsion, Assyria, too, was forced to abandon
its hold on Egypt entirely. This situation permitted
Psammetichus I to seize power with the aid of his Greek and
Carian mercenaries. He began to consolidate Egypt entirely under
his royal authority. In doing so, he inaugurated the so- called
Saite Period of Egyptian history. One of Psammetichus I's
achievements was to install a new military garrison at
Elephantine to secure the Nubian frontier. He may well have
dispatched a military expedition into Lower Nubia to strike the
Kushites and forestall any desire to reestablish their foothold
in Egypt.
Later (ca. 600 BC), Psammetichus II sent an invasion force to
Upper Nubia with the clearly stated purpose of smiting the
Kushites. Apparently, he was responding to some threat of a new
Kushite invasion of Upper Egypt under King Anlamani, as well as
to a desire to recover Lower Nubia. His significant army was
composed of Greek, Carian, and Phoenician mercenaries who
penetrated deeply into Upper Nubia. They met and decisively
defeated the Kushites in two battles, at Tibo (the Island of
Argo) at the entrance to the Dongola Reach and probably at
Napata itself. Records from this campaign derive from graffiti
scrawled by the victorious troops at Abu Simbel and from two
series of victory stelae erected by Psammetichus II at Tanis and
at Karnak and Kalabsha Temples. He recorded the defeat of the
Kushites in which 4,200 of them were made captive. Another
result of this bitter campaign was that the figures and names of
the Kushite kings, where they were previously inscribed on the
walls of Egyptian temples and monuments, were hacked away in
order to expunge them from the Egyptian record. These were
replaced by the name of Psammetichus II himself.
The Saites did not capitalize on this victory to consolidate any
hold on Upper Nubia. Rather, their interest was to secure Lower
Nubia and control the stretch of territory that the Greeks
called, the Dodekaschoenus, the "Twelve-schoenus Stretch" (1
schoenus=10.5 km.). This was the stretch of river valley that
extended ca. 126 km. south of Elephantine through Lower Nubia.
From the Saite Period through the Roman Era, the rulers of Egypt
always tried to hold at least this part of Lower Nubia, because
it provided vital access to the gold mines of the district and
in the Wadi Allaqi.
The Nubian three successor kingdoms in the 6th century A.D
The Nubian would re-emerge as three successor kingdoms in the
6th century A.D. Nobatia in the north, the central kingdom,
Muqurra, and Alwa, in the heart of old Meroitic Kingdom in the
south. In all three kingdoms were ruled by a military elite.
Strangely using Greek titles in emulation of the Byzantine court
and Christian. However, it was not surprising as Egypt then
Abyssinia had both been converted to Christianity in the
previous century by the Byzantines. The Nubians as they seemed
to have always done in the past adopted Egyptian traditions
accepting religion suzerainty from the Coptic Church based in
Alexandria. This period saw a resurgence of the cultural and
ideological connections between the Mediterranean World with the
Nubians. The Greek language infiltrated Nubian society through
religious teachings, and remained strong even until the 12th
century A.D.
However, after the Arabs invaded Egypt in 639 A.D. and as
Muslims began to dominate Egypt this connection as well as to
the rest of the Christian World was lost. The Arabs invaders
that had taken control of Egypt tried to take the Nubian
Kingdoms by force but was repelled, not once but twice, in 642
A.D. and again in 652 A.D. This forced the successor states to
reunite. The Arabs then turn to seek peaceful relations with the
Nubians to facilitate trade between the two cultures. The
Christian Nubian Kingdoms reached its height in the 9th and 10th
century. However, over the next 1000 years the Islamic
influences brought about by Arab merchants as they began to
establish trade posts and intermarried into the population
gradually turned the Nubians into a majority Islamic, Arabic
speaking nation. The turning point was in the 13th century A.D.,
when the Mamelukes from Egypt intervened in a dynastic dispute
within the Nubian monarchy forcing the Northern Kingdoms of
Nubia to be satellite state to Egypt. By the 15th century A.D.
as the Christian church declined in influence, a period of
political instability and fragmentation ensued.
Medieval Nubia
Following the collapse of the Meroitic state (c.300-350 CE), the
Middle Nile broke up into a number of smaller kingdoms - by
about 500AD, three major Nubian kingdoms had emerged, Nobatia in
the far north (Lower Nubia), Makuria in the Dongola Reach, and
Alodia in central Sudan (with its capital at Soba), extending up
the Blue Nile. The Nubian kings were converted to Christianity
after 540 CE, and the influence of the Church and its
institutions is apparent in many elements of medieval Nubian
culture. While a single unified kingdom on the scale of Meroe
never reappeared, medieval Nubia prospered, enjoying generally
peaceful relations with Islamic Egypt, in which long-distance
trade flourished.
Medieval Nubia also develops a widely used written language (Old
Nubian) possibly in several dialects, while Greek, Coptic and
latterly Arabic were also widely used. As might be expected,
much emphasis was placed on the translation of biblical texts
and a substantial body of such material has been found during
archaeological excavations. Equally, however, administrative
documents, legal texts and letters were also written in Old
Nubian - a rare early flowering of an indigenous written
language in Africa south of the Sahara. Modern ' Mahas ' Nubian
is closely related to the medieval language of northern Nubia
Karma civilization
The Kerma civilisation was known only from the townsite and
cemeteries of its metropolitan centre and smaller sites to the
north, towards Egypt. However, recent survey and excavation work
has identified many new sites south of Kerma, many located on
channels of the Nile, now dry, which lay to the east of the
modern course of the river. This pattern of settlement indicates
a substantial population and for the first time provides us with
some sort of context in which we can place Kerma itself.
As the long history of Egyptian military activity in Lower Nubia
indicates, Kerma was perceived as a major threat to Pharaonic
Egypt. In the absence of written records from Kerma, our
perceptions of 'Nubia' during this period have of course been
greatly influenced by Egyptian historical records. They,
however, only tell half the story of the frontier wars and the
gradual colonisation of Lower Nubia. Increasingly, the results
of archaeological work in the Kerma heartlands is beginning to
make it possible to tell the story from the other side
The Kerma culture evolved out of the Neolithic around 2400 BC.
The Kushite rulers of Kerma profited from the trading such
luxury goods as gold, ivory, ebony, incense, and even live
animals to the Egyptian Pharaohs. By 1650 BC, Kerma had become a
densely occupied urban center overseeing a centralized state
stretching from at least the 1st Cataract to the 4th, rivaling
ancient Egypt
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